How a bill becomes law in Canada

Every federal law in Canada starts as a bill: a written proposal for a new law or for a change to an existing one. Before a bill becomes law, both chambers of Parliament must pass it and it must receive Royal Assent. This article goes through each step in order. Then it explains how provinces and cities make laws, why the government must keep the “confidence” of the House of Commons, and how you can take part. Test questions often ask about the order of the stages, so learn the step names in English.

Who proposes a bill?

• Government bills are introduced by Cabinet ministers. The Prime Minister and Cabinet propose most new laws, and most bills that become law are government bills.
• Private members’ bills are introduced by MPs who are not ministers. Senators can also introduce bills.

Most bills start in the House of Commons, but some start in the Senate. Bills that raise taxes or spend public money must start in the House of Commons, the elected chamber. A bill’s number shows where it started: bills that begin in the House of Commons are numbered with a C (for example, Bill C-10), and bills that begin in the Senate are numbered with an S.

The steps, one by one

Here is the path of a bill that starts in the House of Commons:

1. First reading. The bill is introduced and printed. There is no debate yet.
2. Second reading. MPs debate the main idea (the principle) of the bill and vote on it.
3. Committee stage. A smaller committee of MPs studies the bill clause by clause. Committees often hear from experts and members of the public, and they can make amendments (changes).
4. Report stage. The committee reports the bill back to the House. Now all MPs can propose further amendments.
5. Third reading. MPs debate the final version of the bill and vote on it.
6. The Senate. The bill goes to the Senate, which follows a similar process: readings, study in committee and a final vote. If the Senate changes the bill, it goes back to the House of Commons, because both chambers must agree on the same text.
7. Royal Assent. The Governor General, acting for the King, gives Royal Assent. The bill is now an Act of Parliament, in other words a law.

A bill that starts in the Senate goes through the same stages in the other order: first the Senate, then the House of Commons, then Royal Assent.

The stages at a glance

Memory tip: “one, two, committee, report, three”. The detailed clause-by-clause work happens in the middle, at committee stage, not at third reading.

What the Senate does

Senators are appointed, not elected, and may serve until age 75. The Senate studies bills closely and can propose amendments, which is why it is often called a chamber of “sober second thought”. It can also reject a bill, but this is rare. A bill cannot become law until the Senate has passed it too.

Provinces and territories

Each province has a legislature with only one elected chamber. In most provinces it is called the Legislative Assembly; in Quebec it is the National Assembly. No province has a senate. A provincial bill goes through readings and committee study in that one chamber. Then the Lieutenant Governor gives Royal Assent on the King’s behalf. In the territories, the Commissioner gives assent to territorial laws.

Provinces can only make laws in their own areas of responsibility, such as education and health care. Federal laws cover areas such as criminal law, national defence and currency.

Cities and towns: by-laws

A municipal council (the mayor or reeve and the councillors) makes local laws called by-laws, for example about parking, noise, pets or snow removal. A by-law is passed by a vote of the council. It does not need Royal Assent. Municipalities get their powers from the province.

Responsible government and confidence

Canada has responsible government. This means the Prime Minister and Cabinet must keep the confidence (the support) of a majority of the members of the elected House of Commons. Nova Scotia was the first colony to achieve responsible government, in 1847–48, and the system still works the same basic way today.

Some votes are treated as tests of confidence. The most important is the vote on the budget. If the government loses a confidence vote, it usually cannot continue. The Prime Minister then normally asks the Governor General to call an election, and the voters decide. Power does not pass automatically to the opposition.

This matters most in a minority government, where the governing party holds fewer than half of the seats. It needs support from MPs of other parties to win confidence votes. In a majority government, the governing party holds at least half of the seats and usually wins these votes. For how governments are formed after an election, see Federal Elections.

Confidence is a matter for the House of Commons only. The Senate cannot remove a government.

The House also holds the government to account on every sitting day. In Question Period, MPs, especially those of the Official Opposition, ask ministers about their decisions. The Official Opposition is also called His Majesty’s Loyal Opposition: it opposes the government but stays loyal to Canada and the Crown.

The Speech from the Throne

Each new session of Parliament opens with the Speech from the Throne. The Governor General usually reads it in the Senate chamber on behalf of the King; the Sovereign can also read it in person. The government writes the speech. It sets out the government’s plans and priorities, including the new laws it intends to introduce. MPs then debate the speech, and the vote at the end of that debate is also treated as a matter of confidence.

The budget

The budget is the government’s plan for taxes and spending. The Prime Minister and Cabinet prepare it, and the Minister of Finance presents it in the House of Commons, usually once a year. Bills that raise taxes or spend public money must start in the House of Commons, not in the Senate. Because the budget is a confidence matter, a government that loses a budget vote usually falls.

How citizens can take part

• Vote in federal, provincial and municipal elections once you are a citizen aged 18 or older. Voting is both a right and a responsibility.
• Contact your MP. Send an email or a letter, phone, or visit your MP’s office in your riding. MPs want to know what the voters in their riding think about bills. To find your MP, see Who’s who in Canadian government.
• Sign or start a petition to the House of Commons.
• Share your views with a committee. Committees that study a bill often accept written comments, and some people are invited to speak as witnesses.
• Join a political party, help a candidate, or one day run for office yourself.
• Watch Parliament at work. Debates are public and broadcast, and you can visit Parliament in Ottawa.

Common mix-ups

• Who gives Royal Assent? Federal bills: the Governor General. Provincial bills: the Lieutenant Governor. The Prime Minister and the Premiers do not sign bills into law.
• Committee stage vs third reading: clause-by-clause study happens at committee stage. Third reading is the final debate and vote.
• Second reading vs report stage: second reading is about the principle of the bill; report stage is for further amendments after the committee.
• One chamber or two? Parliament in Ottawa has two chambers: the elected House of Commons and the appointed Senate. A provincial legislature has one.
• Bill, Act or by-law? A bill is a proposal. An Act is a law that has received Royal Assent. A by-law is a local law passed by a municipal council.
• Tax and spending bills start in the House of Commons, never in the Senate.
• Courts are not a step. Courts apply and interpret laws, but they do not vote on bills. A referendum is not a normal step either.
• Who writes the Throne Speech? The government writes it; the Governor General usually reads it.

To see where the King and the Governor General fit in, read Why does Canada have a King? Then test yourself with a practice test.